How effectively did the Liberal government meet the needs of the British people

The Liberal government implemented a number of reforms some of which were helpful to the public and some of which were not. The Liberal welfare reform legislation was grouped into five main categories. The first of these was the Young people, this included the Education (Provision of Meals) Act 1906, the Education (Administrative Provisions) Act 1907, and the Children Act 1908. The second group was the Old people there was only one reform in this group, however it was a very significant one, the Old Age Pensions Act 1908. The third group was the countries Sick people, again this only included one reform, the National Insurance Act Part 1 1911. The fourth category was the nations' workers, this included the Workmen†s Compensation Act 1906, the Coal Mines Act 1908, the Trade Boards Act 1909, and the Shops Act 1911. The fifth and final category was the counties vast Unemployed faction, this included the Labour Exchanges Act 1909 and the National Insurance Act Part 11 1911. The reforms were not accomplished over night, they introduced the reforms over a relatively long period of time. The Liberals introduced several reforms for children†s health, they initiated school meals (one per day), medical inspections, and the children†s charter. Since education became compulsory the teachers began to notice that lots of children were coming to school hungry, dirty or ill. Therefore in 1906 the government introduced legislation that compelled local government to provide free or subsidised school meals for all â€Å"poor† children. Most of the credit for this new law is accredited to two reports which were published in the wake of the Boer War: The Royal Commission on Physical Training in Scotland (1903) and the Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Physical Deterioration. The introduction of these meals was not the be-all and end-all, by 1912 over half the local authorities had still not set up a school meals service. This reform was important for two main reasons. Firstly because it was the first step away from schooling and into the concept that welfare benefits could be granted to the poor without them having the debt or disabilities associated with the poor law. Secondly it was a step towards recognition that parents were not wholly responsible for their children†s undernourishment. Also that, with public support, needy children could be well cared for at home and did not need to be put into public or voluntary care. The second Liberal reform for Young people was the introduction of school medical inspections under the Education (Administrative Provisions) Act of 1907. The Government did not want this Act to be implemented because they felt they could not afford to treat the chronic health problems which would inevitably be discovered. However, administrative pressure from Robert L. Morant, the permanent secretary of the Education Board, who was in turn influenced by Margaret Macmillan forced the government to take action. This reform was particularly helpful because the Board of Education set up a medical department, and the gloomy reports from doctors led to the introduction of school clinics from 1912. These clinics were very good at identifying defects and illnesses. On the other hand the cost of treatment was often too great for some families and their children rarely received treatment. The final reform introduced by the Liberal Party for Young people was the Children†s Act of 1908, which later became known as the ‘children†s charter. † This legislation made it illegal for parents to neglect their children. There were several extensions of this which dealt with specific circumstances such as-Children under 16 were forbidden to smoke or drink and stiff penalties were brought in for shops which supplied them with alcohol of tobacco. This Act had no real significance as most of its finer points were contained in the parents morality or the two previous Acts, it only really served as a follow up to the main Acts. The next main reform introduced by the Liberal party moved away from Young people and to the opposite end of the scale with the Old Age Pensions Act of 1908. Basically the Liberals introduced a state pension for all people over seventy who had worked all their lives and could no longer work and they complied with the conditions- which were not too strict. This Act was the culmination of over 20 years of discussion of the topic of poverty among the elderly and it came about for two main of reasons. The first and in many peoples opinion the most important was the example of the monumental German state insurance and pension scheme. The second was that leading figures such as Joseph Chamberlain and Charles Booth had taken up the cause. The government miscalculated how many people would claim the pension. They had estimated 500,000 when actually 650,000 people applied and by 1914 this had increased to nearly a million. This fact show that the pensions were badly needed and wanted by Britain†s elderly community. Just how grateful people were for this pension is displayed by this quote â€Å"When the Old Age Pensions began, life was transformed for such aged cottagers. They were relieved of anxiety, and when they first went to the post office to draw it tears of gratitude would flow down their faces. Therefore we can see that people really did want state help but were â€Å"too proud to wear the badge of Pauperism. † The next reform dealt with the countries sick people, this was the National Insurance Act Part 1. After Lloyd George had completed his inspection of the German social insurance scheme, he was left in no doubt that Britain needed a much more comprehensive system. He was presented with immense pressure from the opposition such as friendly societies and doctors, however he was determined to build the scheme and not be bullied into submission. As a result of the opposition he had to modify his original scheme accordingly. It was basically an extension of the pension scheme and the concept was that the richer elements for the country should pay more so the poorer elements could contend with difficulties when old or sick. This budget was passed in 1910. This had the same effect as the pension scheme though on a smaller and less consistent scale. The next category for the Liberal reforms was the Countries workers, the Liberal government passed four Laws which are stated in introduction, they sought to improve working conditions, these included minimum wage, fewer hours, etc. These measures constituted a significant improvement for millions of workers, many of whom had no one to speak up for them. The fifth and final category was the unemployed. Up until the turn of the century unemployment was still seen partly as a moral problem of individual idleness and partly as a seasonal problem for certain industries such as shipbuilding and construction. Few people were willing to accept that it may be out of the individual workers control as a result of the lack of wide ranged evidence. The Labour Exchanges Bill was passed in September 1909 as a result of two reports and a book advocating their establishment. The basic idea was that a Labour exchange would allow employer and employee to register their requirements at one central location and could therefore have them met. They also had detailed information of job vacancies. By 1914 there were 430 exchanges throughout Britain and 3000 people were provide work through them every day so they were pretty important in relieving Britain†s unemployment problem. The second of the reforms for the unemployed was Unemployment Insurance. This scheme was worked out be Llewellyn Smith, the permanent secretary for the Board of Trade, and it was essentially Part 11 of the National Insurance Act 1911. By 1915 2. 3 million workers were insured. Admittedly this was a small proportion of the total working population, however it was accepted as the beginning of a much more comprehensive system. Between 1906 and 1911 the Liberal Government introduced all of the above reforms, this impressive list of social reform measures adds up to a significant shift away from minimum government and Laissez Faire. Many Historians argue that the current welfare state finds its origins in the Liberal reforms. This view is justified when one considers that old age pensions, safeguards against unemployment and illness are the basis of the modern welfare state. Consequently many historians believe that the Liberal reforms were extremely limited in scope and failed to deal adequately with the considerable welfare problems of housing and they did not attempt to set up a national health service. Moreover the reforms which were introduced were very limited: Pensions too low; health insurance did not cover employee†s family; and unemployment insurance only applied to seven trades. Obviously the effectiveness of the Liberal welfare reforms is debatable. By the standards of the time they were accepted as fundamental actions for social reform-some more so than others. On the other hand, looking back with our frame of reference (modern welfare Britain), the Liberal reforms appear to be severely inadequate. However, it is important to remember that both Lloyd George and Winston Churchill saw their reforms as only the first step.

General Knowledge in Criminal Justice

Every country is governed by a set of laws designed to maintain order within it. There are laws that govern the political relations with its citizens while there are also laws that regulate the civil rights of its citizens. There are a set of rules that define what acts or omissions are considered felonies or offenses and prescribes punishment for violations of these rules. The latter is called the criminal justice system of a country. This criminal justice system is manifested by the enactment of penal laws of the state. Penal laws define what acts are considered crime and determine the proper penalty for its commission. Because of the enactment of penal laws, each state is able to enforce and maintain law and order within its jurisdiction. Society is a complex structure which does not simply function harmoniously by accident. There must be a conscious effort on the part of the state to regulate the behavior of its members. It is because of this reason that the system of punishment was institutionalized and legitimized in our society. Punishment is the action taken by the State for every violation of its laws. Punishment can be considered as a response by the society to any offense or felony committed against it. It may range from the deprivation of liberty of the convicted individual or the payment of fine for the reparation of injury caused. The deprivation of liberty can last from several days or it may extend to several years depending on the nature of the crime committed. If the crime however is heinous capital punishment may be imposed. Classical Theory There are many theories on which our criminal justice system is based. One of the foundations for imposition of the criminal justice system is the Classical Theory. It attempts to give an explanation on the root cause of crime for the purpose of controlling it or preventing it from happening. It argues that man is by nature a moral creature with a free will. This free will gives him the capacity to choose between right and wrong. When man performs an act, the assumption is that the same is a rational and conscious decision arising from a careful calculation of its possible consequences. It is to be presumed that the doer of the act has carefully weighed the consequences of his action so that he will achieve his end-goal which is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain. Thus, when a person engages in deviant behavior and commits a crime it is to be presumed that he voluntarily and willfully committed it after a careful calculation of both the benefits and risks of its commission. Crime is therefore a product of rational and conscious choice deliberately performed by an individual and not the result of the external forces surrounding him. There are those who hold that crime is a social and natural phenomenon as contradistinguished from the Classical Theory. According to the Positivist Theory, man at times is subdued by a strange and morbid phenomenon which constrains and impels him to do wrong. Though man is by nature good, there are forces around him that makes him commit a wrongful act. Thus, contrary to the Classical School, crime is not a product of a rational and conscious decision that results from carefully weighing the advantages and disadvantages of the act rather it results from interplay of social and external forces that heavily influence the individual. It is because of this reason that the criminal justice system should not be a mere function of strict and inflexible application of the abstract principles of law. Rather, it is the task of the judge to take into consideration such other facts and circumstances that attend the commission of the crime. Retributivism Theory There are those who adhere to the Retributivism Theory. According to this theory, punishment is allowed, whether it is imprisonment or death, because the convicted prisoner deserves it. This is otherwise known as the doctrine of ‘just desert’ which is founded on the ‘eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth† philosophy. When an injury is done to another, an unfair situation is created between the offender and the victim. The imposition of punishment against the wrongdoer removes the unfair advantage and restores the balance. (Anthony Duff, Sec 5) In essence, this theory states that certain actions in the society that are injurious to other people will merit the imposition of imprisonment. When these acts are done willfully and voluntarily by any individual then it is but proper that he be punished for his acts to restore the moral balance and address the moral culpability which are essential in restoring harmony in the society. (Deligitimizing Retribution†2) UtilitarianTheory On the other hand, there are those who believe in the Utilitarian Theory. It argues that state- sanctioned punishment is justified because of its utility. Based on the principle of utility, acts are pursued depending on the desirability of its consequences. If punishment will most likely produce the greatest balance of happiness over unhappiness then the punishment is justified. But if there are other options that would produce a greater balance of happiness over unhappiness, then that option should be chosen and punishment is unjustified. Kevin Murtagh, Sec 1a) In simpler terms, the idea is if we are to weigh the positive effects of punishment as against its negative effects and the positive effects outweighs the negative ones then that punishment has to be imposed. This theory somewhat looks forward and considers the consequences of punishment to the society. Unlike the Retributivist theory which focuses on the benefits to the victim, in Utilitarian Theory the oth er members of the society is considered to benefit from the imprisonment of the convicted prisoner. Deterrence Theory. For example, capital punishment is considered beneficial for the society because it deters the commission of more crimes by other persons. Under the Deterrence Theory, the imposition of the criminal justice system sends a strong message that it is tough on crime. Once a convicted prisoner is imprisoned or sentenced to death it is as if we are saying to the rest of the society that this will happen to those who will violate our laws. It is also an open declaration that there is a war against crime and that any violation of its laws will be seriously dealt with by the state. Once society sees that the violation of a law will have serious consequences to the wrong-doers then this will have a positive effect to the society by deterring criminality. Incapacitation Theory According to Incapacitation Theory, society is also benefited from the imprisonment of the convicted prisoner because it incapacitates him from further committing crimes and reduces recidivism rate. (Lynch and Sabol) Experience shows that those who have previously committed crimes are more likely to commit another crime. There is no more effective way of incapacitating the offender except by removing them from the society. Thus, in the case of imposition of death penalty, a person who is sentenced to death can no longer commit further crimes because he is permanently incapacitated to perform the same. The society is also benefited when wrong-doers are incarcerated or sentenced to death. We also prevent the possibility of these people escaping from prison and committing further crimes. (Thoughts on the Death Penalty p 2) The purpose of this is the protection of the other members of the society. Restorative Justice Theory The Restorative Justice theory is another aspect of the Utilitarian Theory which gives emphasis on the restoration of the criminal offender as one of the purposes of criminal justice system. It seeks to promote the objective of restoring the offender to the mainstream society by making him perform community service, requiring reimbursement and other worthwhile activities while in prison. This is based on the theory that a criminal offender is a socially sick individual. The other members of the society have the moral obligation to give aid and assistance to them.

What It Tkes to Be an Successful College Student

What Does It Take To Be A Successful College Student? By: Vera Ioveino-Swett Some might say good grades and attending class is what it takes; however success is roe than just good grades and attendance. Success within life, education, or within anything we do comes through hard work and dedication. In our lifetimes we all have learned from our experiences as well as our education; success is one’s desire to become a better them, in addition to committing themselves to the path/journey which take them to their success of dreams and goals, something I like to call our finish line.We hold the key to succeed in our hands, as well as whether we succeed or fail lies and depends on us. Becoming a successful college student can be challenging at times and very frustrating. Many students attend college not fully knowing what it takes to be successful within their education, as well as that journey. Students who might have been an ‘A’ student in high school come to then fin d themselves just sot stressed and struggling with the challenges academically in college. Here are some strategies that will help you to achieve becoming the most successful student you can be.These are tips in which I follow, as well as only work for you as long as you dedicate yourself to them, and achieve what it is out of your education and life journey you seek. (If you can see it, you can achieve it). Strategies for College Success Strategy #1 – never be afraid to seek out help if and when you really need it. Strategy #2 – Create/develop a strategy plan that works within your learning style and preferences; in addition that will keep you focused and motivated. What might work for one, might not for another. Everyone is different. Strategy #3 – Make and set S. M. A. R.T Goals for yourself to ensure you reach what you would like to gain and achieve out of your term, semester, calluses, etc. They can consist of long-term, short-term or both. However, donâ₠¬â„¢t make too many because it can become overwhelming, and distract you from achieving any or beginning them. You should also write your goals out on paper as well or on a sticky note so it is not just in your mind. This way seeing your goals in front of you on paper daily, will help you in becoming successful in accomplishing what it is you want to achieve. This can also help you not forget that you made a goal list.You can even reward yourself after each goal you accomplished/achieved to keep you motivated on knocking out the next one. It also helps develop goal-setting habits that will contribute to success within your life. Strategy #4 – Manage your time. Having good time- management, is key for success in college, but also adds a plus within your personal life as well as career. You can make a To Do List each day either for the week, month or both to help assist you remain, and stay on track. You also may want to after creating this list to find and delete/reduce your b iggest time-wasters.Example – Instead of having a quick study session: create a 1 hour bock time to study that gives you 5-10 min breaks. Another would be – examine how much time you need for each class. So for let’s say an 3 credit hour class, you would want to give yourself around 6 hours of outside time each week; instead of trying to do it all at the last minute You will also gain a plus in this as well by remembering material effectively and longer. Another thing is to make sure to say NO to those who keep you away from your studies as well as activities like Facebook, or X-box, etc.Strategy #5 – Make sure to attend class as scheduled. Attending Seminar’s/class as scheduled will ensure you succeed in your classes because your professor can go over questions you may have as well as will go over material that just learning from your textbook doesn’t cut it or ensure remembering material or clarifying it. Being a part of an active class ca n also have you gain access to classmate’s questions or concerns which may be on a homework assignment or quiz in which your professor will go over and even may provide the answer to, or steps to how the answer is reached which is always a plus.Strategy #6 – Take notes. One way you may want to take notes is within a way that is systematic and becomes beneficial for exams, projects quizzes, etc. make sure to always date, and place the name of the class, Unit, Chapter, as well as titles and subtitles in your notes that are being discussed, and shown. Write down terms, definition’s, key points, examples, graphs, and diagrams; this will come in handy for review on/for tests, quizzes, projects, and studying later on. Do not write word from word as I do.Summarize discussions your professor is explaining in your own words except for terms and items mentioned above. Strategy #7 – READ! READ! READ! Make sure to preview the chapter rubrics, projects, assignments, e tc. beforehand. It’s the same as when you preview a movie or a video game before purchasing it. This way you can get an idea of what the chapter, etc. will focus on. Then read the Introduction, and learning objectives in the chapter. This will give you a purpose to what you will achieve. One thing I found easier is to read a section first then go back to highlight the material.This will not just help with looing your spot, but also help to consume the material from your STM to your LTM since you will be reciting the material again as you highlight. You can then read out loud, important points, ideas, etc. , to ensure you understand the material and even have a family member or friend test you. Strategy #8 – Preparing for your Midterms/Finals. You are being prepared for your big tests from the very start of the first day of class. So everything from there on is to prepare you for what’s to come.First day I would open and copy the rubrics to Midterm, Final, exams then view each of them. One to two weeks before exams, consolidate all your notes (textbooks, seminar, discussions etc. ), review, and even place your rough draft threw the Writing Center for suggestions, and advice on grammar, formatting, citations, and sentence structure. The Writing Center pap0er review is a great way to ensure success for your finals, midterms, projects, as well as all written papers. When it comes to your tests/finals/midterms, make sure to always be prepared.Read all instructions and follow each one according to your professor’s rubrics. Don’t spend a lot of time on one question, you can always come back to it later on, and remember to always stay calm, though some anxiety is completely normal. Have Fun! Being organized, focused, and determined as you find your strategy plan, will bring you 100% success within and along your educational journey. Here’s a quote I live by and that helped me to get here today: In order to succeed you must fai l, so that you know what not to do next time. – Anthony J. D’Angelo-

Deutsche Bank Spying affaire Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Deutsche Bank Spying affaire - Research Paper Example c, the affair struck at the heart of a country still struggling with its past identity where spying on citizens in the Communist East was a matter of course. How the bank will weather these latest charges is one question. What impact the investigations will have on stakeholders is another that affects not only the future of Deutsche Bank but also its reputation and credibility as a major player on the world financial stage. The four cases of surveillance concern a nuisance shareholder, an investigative journalist, a supervisory board member suspected of leaking information, four senior bank managers and a private person who sent threatening letters to Deutsche Bank board members. Among the targets of the surveillance were Gerald Herrmann, a former union leader and supervisory board member who was suspected of leaking sensitive company information to the media.  Michael Bohndorf, an activist shareholder who has been critical of the bank; and Hermann-Josef Lamberti, Deutsche Banks chief operating officer. The Bank launched its own investigation in the spring of 2009 and by mid-summer the affair had been turned over to BaFin, the German financial regulator. The investigative results were passed to the German data protection authority who has in turn submitted them to the German public prosecutors office. Tactics employed by the bank included media reports that detectives hired by Deutsche Bank were instructed to test Lambertis security consciousness by trying to plant a GPS tracking device in his car and sending a bouquet of flowers containing an inactive microphone to his home. Bohndorf, the activist shareholder, said that private investigators posed as vacationers and spied on his home on the Spanish island of Ibiza after he asked a number of provocative questions at a Deutsche Bank shareholders meeting in 2006. His contention was that detectives tried to determine if he had a weakness for women by setting up a "honey trap" operation that involved a chance

Wine Bottle Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Wine Bottle - Research Paper Example From the discussion it is clear that  since the 17the century wine bottles have been closed by the traditional cork closures which are obtained by processing the bark of the cork tree. Portugal is the biggest exporter of the wine cork closures and its economy is highly based on this primary export. Wine bottle closures are highly important to seal the bottle so that the wine is not affected by the damaging property of the oxygen in the atmosphere although a very little amount of oxygen is still required to be trespassed in to the bottle which is helpful for the wine to reach its potential. The corks are not perfect enough to block all of the oxygen which serves the purpose but they are fallible too which can result in crumbling, breaking, leaking and also, forming the corked wine.  This essay stresses that  the cork closure provides the ceremonial tradition of opening the wine bottle with the popping action. Synthetic and screw cap closures are used as alternatives to the cork closures. The synthetic closures are not successful since they too pass the plastic taints to the wine. Screw Cap closures which are made of aluminium alloy casing which forms the outer layer of the closure with an inner lining of expanded polyethylene which air tights the bottle on compression. Screw cap closures are better wine closures than the cork ones and are also, comparatively expensive due to the material used in them but this expense is lower than the loss incurred due to the corked wines by the cork closures.

Knowledge of water-only systems may influence the incident commanders Essay

Knowledge of water-only systems may influence the incident commanders incident action plan - Essay Example In case of a fire emergency, the knowledge of when and where the water is available will influence significantly which strategy the incident commander will adopt depending on whether or not the water will be available. The relevance and conciseness of the plan will depend on the knowledge of water-only systems. The commander will be able to create a plan that suits the emergency by assessing the availability of water in a particular area. When laying out a strategy to curb fire in a deserted area, the plan needs to include the sources of water to stop the fire or other sources to stop the situation such as fire extinguishers. Lastly, the knowledge on water systems will be essential to make timely and complete plans. The information on water systems will be critical to the execution of the project to avoid hindering efficiency and compromising safety (Haraway, 2010). For example, with the knowledge of where and when water will be available, a fire extinguishing company will be able to lay out a complete and timely plan of what shall be needed in the event. In conclusion, knowledge of water-only systems plays a crucial role in determining the objectives to be set, the strategies to be laid and the tactics to be applied in the case of emergencies. The knowledge enables the plan to be timely, accurate and

Social Class Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Social Class - Essay Example These classes are â€Å"distinguished by inequalities in such areas as power, authority, wealth, working and living conditions, life-styles, life-span, education, religion, and culture† (Cody). How one’s socio-economic status, with which he is born with, affects his life chances is going to be discussed in this paper. Let’s first talk about healthcare. One who is born with high social status is given all the rights by the society to enjoy good health care facilities. He has enough money to go to expensive doctors or even visit physicians abroad. He has all the resources with which he can afford expensive medicines, and also can hire servants who bring the medicine placed on a tray to be put into his mouth. When a wealthy man goes to a hospital, he immediately gets an appointment with the highly professional provider. On the other hand, when a person belonging to a lower class, or even a middle class, gets sick, he is not able to afford to go to a doctor and buy c ostly medicines. If at all he manages to reach the hospital, he has to wait in long queues to get an appointment to get him examined. The doctor will not talk to him humanely. This way, the upper class enjoys greater longevity than the lower class. The middle class is not affected much in case of longevity. Hence, the amount of money a person has in his pocket decides what kind of and how much health care he will receive. This is the class discrimination that has deepened its roots into our society and no matter how much we get educated, we will always fall prey to this cruel discrimination. As far as family life is concerned, it is affected negatively in lower classes. This is because poor people are more stressed out because of poor financial conditions. They do not have high paying jobs, and thus they hardly make both ends meet. They cannot think of any luxury other than earning bread and butter. The family life is disturbed and the children do not get enough attention from their parents. Despite being the richest country, Americans rank highest in child poverty rates. They are stricken with insufficient nutrition along with unemployment and housing that is overcrowded (Arloc). Poor class manifests in physical, emotional and social ways. McLoyd suggests that impoverished children have social, emotional and behavioral problems due to poor health and serious mental health problems stemming from the persistent poverty level in which they live. Aber and Bennett concluded that serious health problems come along with the territory such as preventable diseases like Influenza, Measles, Malnutrition and AIDS due to lack of proper education and poor or no health care at all. On the other hand, the rich people have all the facilities and luxuries with which they can make their lives easier and their children happier. They can always spend lots of money on vacations, movies, games, picnics, and so on. The education and the political system is also dependent upon the so cial class. Lower social classes do not have the funding to support their children financially so that they are able to get good education. So they lag behind. This ends in their not getting good jobs, thus they add to the overall poverty. The high social classes can afford good schools and colleges, and can even send their children abroad for higher education. Thus, education sector is controlled by those high in power and wealth. Moreover, upper class is also able to vote more and choose their political leaders. Lower classes either

The Toys and Games Industrys Response to Globalazation Essay - 1

The Toys and Games Industrys Response to Globalazation - Essay Example The strategies used by this industry to effect globalization include a comprehensive marketing and online-selling of its products. This aspect enables the company to access many customers from diverse backgrounds of culture, race, beliefs and religion. According to Baker (2011, 82), the industry’s products and services get an international recognition and much revenue. Moreover, the management in the Toys and Games industry has learnt new management strategies through the recent access to large volumes of data. The access to volumes of data is a recent occurrence, which has greatly globalized many aspects of business (Butler, 2008, 41). For instance, the access to bid data has enabled the Toys and Games industry to gather crucial information with regard to global performance trends in various sectors and product lines. Mayer (2013, 46) asserts that new methods of product differentiation and diversification have been learnt after the acquisition of bid sets of data from a globa l platform. The big information has culminated in the restructuring of organizational structure for efficiency and effectiveness in the Toys and Games industry operations. According to Cerra (2012, 34), the big data have led to the realization of new ways of achieving global customer satisfaction, continuous improvement and total quality management within the Toys and Games industry. These principles are critical in the thriving of the industry. In the case of transportation of commodities, there is the use of sensors on trucks in order to streamline the delivery of goods through shipping. This contains the problem of stock-out cost and machine overhaul cost. The massive data have also helped the manufactures in tracking the trend of customer preference and taste (Gill, 2010, 56).

CYB Week 2 Discussion Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

CYB Week 2 Discussion - Assignment Example A ping sweep is a diagnostic method used to determine what range of Internet Protocol addresses that are in use by live hosts, usually computers. It is usually used to indicate where active computers are on a network and is sometimes used by the system administrator for identifying a network issue. Ping sweeps are also utilized by computer attackers to see which machines are active so they know where to focus their attacks (Kizza, 2005). A packet sniffer is a program that sees all of the data passing over the network of which the computer is connected to. As data creeks back and forth on the network, the program "sniffs," each packet. A packet is a section of the message that has been broken up. Example Port scanning is defined as the technique of systematically skimming a computers ports, a port is where information gets into and out of a computer, and port scanning identifies open ports to a computer. For instance, TCP Null, TCP Xmas, TCP FIN, TCP SYN, and UDP port

Managing a health and social cae orgainsation Essay

Managing a health and social cae orgainsation - Essay Example In this context, identifying appropriate management practices for the particular sector can be a challenging task. This paper presents a series of management theories that could be effectively used in the health and care industry. Reference is also made to the ethical and legal issues that tend to appear in the particular sector, at the level that these issues set limits to the freedom of the industry’s employees to take initiatives. It is proved that, like in all sectors, in the health and social care industry the use of appropriate management practices is quite necessary so that the industry’s organizations are able to face market challenges. In any case, before applying any management theory in one of the industry’s organizations it is necessary to take into consideration the ethical implications of the particular initiative. 2. Management and health and social care organizations 2.1 Models and theories of management relevant to a health and social care enviro nment Different views seem to exist in the literature in regard to the involvement of management theories in the health and social care industry. In general, the necessity of these theories for the industry’s organizations is not doubted. Still, oppositions have been developed as to which of existing management theories are most appropriate for the health and social care sector. ... asis is given on hierarchy, as it results to ‘different levels of responsibilities and rights among the members of the organization’ (Harris 2005, p.63). The bureaucratic theory is based on a series of rules, that need to be followed in all organizations that adopt the particular style of management: a) the hiring of an individual to a specific position is depended on his skills; the power of each employee as ‘a member of the organization is related to his position in the organizational hierarchy’ (Harris 2005, p.63); b) following the procedures is of critical importance; no employee has the right to take initiatives, unless they are within the context of the power given to the employee as member of the organization; (Harris 2005, p.63) the activities of individuals, as members of the organization, ‘are predictable’ (Harris 2005, p.63), meaning that there is a routine in regard to the tasks assigned to each individual; this routine cannot be cha nged unless it is ordered by the employer (Harris 2005, p.63). Another management theory that it is widely used in organizations operating in the healthcare sector is the institutional theory. The particular theory is based on the idea that organizations operate in environments that are characterized by ‘a series of myths, such as rules of professional conduct or ethical standards, to which organizations have to conform’ (Shortell and Kaluzny 1997, p.21). At this point, a key difference seems to exist between the common organizational environments, also characterized as ‘technical environments, and the institutional environments’ (Shortell and Kaluzny 1997, p.21). The former tend to press the organizations for continuously increasing their profits (Shortell and Kaluzny 1997, p.21). The latter require that the

Literary Analysis of the poem Beowulf Essay Example for Free

Literary Analysis of the poem Beowulf Essay Beowulf is considered as one of the longest poems in literature with more than 3,000 lines. It is has no known author, but it was considered as the national epic of England. Beowulf is a man a hero who faced three major battles in the poem. These battles were not against other humans, but were against monstrous creatures (The Norton Anthology of English Literature). It is a poem that deals with legends, of hero and his men, and his great battles. It is composed mainly to entertain, a work of fiction with several relations to historical context. And with this, some speculations were raised, saying that Beowulf was something more that a poetic narrative of the hero, Beowulf. The epic poem was then related to a Christian context, saying that it was a Christian allegory. The poem takes place in the late 5th to 6th century, following the Anglo-Saxon’s settlement in England, after making contact with Germanic tribes in Scandinavia and Germany. Beowulf may be based on real people and real events at that time in Scandinavia. The clans mentioned in the poem were clans which are found in the area, as well as some of the prominent personalities in the story. So basically, the epic poem is a work of fiction but was based on factual characters and events during that time. The time of Beowulf was a time of Paganism, but Beowulf himself addresses a higher being rather than man, wherein he presents himself to the Father Almighty. According to Helterman, â€Å"As the view of the intellectual setting has shifted from a pagan to a Christian context, this ‘something more’ has been seen as a Christian allegory or didacticism†¦yet the tone of the poem and the lack of specific Christian allusions cause difficulties for such an approach (Helterman). The poem didn’t mention anything regarding Christianity, and Beowulf was a pagan. But there were several â€Å"Christian sentiments of a general sort† which were attributed to the hero. Because of the Christian-like characterization of the hero Beowulf, there were several speculations saying that the author was a Christian in England who wrote about Scandinavian history, which then became the epic poem Beowulf. But some said that the Christian attribution in the hero’s character could mean that he was an archetype, the generic, idealized model of a person (Chickering). And at that time, Christianity was a budding religion, wherein Beowulf’s character could have been patterned into that of an ideal Christian. Beowulf as the hero of the epic was made the way he is, the ideal person. But then again, every hero has its counterparts. And just like Beowulf, his counterpart can be seen in a Christian context. The epic poem Beowulf is divided into three major battles. The first one is his battle with the monstrous creature called Grendel, which was the reason why he went to Hrotgar. Just like Beowulf, Grendel also has a Christian context. He is to be the descendant of Cain, the son of Adam and Eve which was banished for killing his own brother. Because of this, Grendel is given an antagonistic comparison with Cain, who was the first person to commit murder in the Christian bible. Grendel, along with his mother, was compared to as the kinsmen of Cain, whereas Beowulf was the pagan hero considered as the archetype of a human being. Beowulf and Grendel were great opposites, as manifestation of the forces of good battling with the forces of evil, or in the context of religion and Christianity, will be righting the wrong. Beowulf’s character is the manifestation of Christianity’s good; wherein his defense of Heorot was an act to â€Å"order the chaotic universe,† where Grendel and his mother on the other hand, were the forces that bring chaos, falling into pattern of disorder (Batchelor). This is manifested by their physical appearance wherein they do not resemble or have any human characteristics. They were monstrous in size and strength. They can kill people with the swipe of their hands, and they even eat people, as to what Grendel did to Hrotgar’s men. Another possible association with religion and Christianity was during the creation of Heorot, the great hall which was built for the people of King Hrotgar (Helterman). The creation of the hall was because of the word of the king. It is the same as that of the Christian’s Genesis, wherein with the word of God, there was light. And it was with that word that He was able to create day and night, and everything that he wished and commanded. Just as with Hrotgar’s word, Heorot was created, all for the sake of the people, since in this hall they dined, ate and sang, until the time that Grendel came into the story. When Grendel came, it was like introducing chaos into order so that you could cleanse it, just like the cleansing of the sins of the people, just like the Great flood, where chaos or the flood was added in order to cleanse the world of the sinners. When Grendel came into Heorot, chaos caused destruction, thus it would require reconstruction, where after reconstruction was the cleansed state. Grendel, even though he caused a great deal of devastation to the people, has served a purpose, which was to strengthen the then destroyed Heorot. His chaos has led to a good outcome in the story. It could also be viewed on another angle, where the battle between Beowulf and Grendel was actually the same as to that of the myth of creation, where light and darkness mixed and â€Å"fought† in order to create the earth and everything in it. Another instance that relates the epic poem Beowulf to Christianity was during the battle against the mother of Grendel. Beowulf was definite on the losing end at that moment, since his sword, Hrunting, lost its powers and cannot harm the creature he is up against with. In his desperation, he was able to locate a sword in the Grendel’s lair, which only he could be able to use. It was a heavy sword of the giant, which he used to behead the mother of Grendel and eventually prolong his life. Even though he was able to slay the monster and keep his life, he gives the credit of his victory to the â€Å"higher being,† the â€Å"Wielder of Men. † It was an indirect association to God in Christianity, since he recognizes His powers and that his victory wasn’t possible without him. Beowulf being a pagan is just a characteristic, since there was no evidence of him knowing about Christianity (Batchelor). But the fact that he addresses to a higher being is a manifestation of being Christian even in his beliefs. The epic poem Beowulf is truly a literary piece that was made to entertain, with the life of Beowulf as a hero, his adventures, his battles, and even his death, makes it a wonderful read. But there are other underlying concerns that could come about while reading the epic. It is undeniable that there are other meanings in what was written, rather than just to entertain. The poem Beowulf is associated with religion, especially Christianity. The main character’s recognition of a higher being is but one of many manifestations of this underlying messages.

Mary Shelleyss Frankenstein Essay Example for Free

Mary Shelleyss Frankenstein Essay He wishes he was dead, feels that the world is mocking him and that he is the only one, who is not loved and cared for in the entire world. He declares war against the species and especially the man who created him. This shows us, that Frankensteins monsters biggest wish really is to be accepted, and when denied this, he goes completly berserk, not wanting to face the facts that are being presented to him. We can also tell, that he has a lot of selfpity, and a great understanding of the unfairness of his situation. But the next day he goes back, because deep inside he still has hope, and he convinces himself, that last nights incident was just too much too early. When arriving at the cottage he discovers that the family has moved, and his last shred of hope disapprears, and he burns down the cottage, and heads for Genevi , to find his creator, so he can take revenge. He feels treated unfairly by Frankenstein, and calls him his cursed, cursed creator, but his need to find him is understandable. He wants to know where he comes from and he wants answers, which is a natural thing for any child, who is not in touch with its roots. On his way he saves a girl from drowning, but gets shot instead of being thanked, and this makes his feelings towards humans more intense. When in Genevi , he captures a young boy, who turns out to be Frankensteins son. He kills him and sets a young girl up for the murder. His reason for doing this is clear: he wants to inflict pain upon Frankenstein. His reason for setting the girl up for the murder is, in his own words, because he is forever robbed of what she could have given him, because of his cursed apperenace. But she gives him an idea. He wants Frankenstein to make him a bride, someone of his own species, as horrible and deformed as himself, so that he will have companionship, which is what he wants more than everything else. The main characteristic of Frankensteins creation, is the longing for acceptance and company, this we can tell by his approces to first his creator and later to other people, and the facts that he has feelings and intelligence. He wants nothing more than to live a normal life, and he curses his creator for making it impossible for him to do that. In the beginning he is not evil, he does not want to kill, but the actions of the humans around him, make him the monster that Frankenstein thought him to be. He feels that humans are the most decietful of species, because they build up your hopes, and tear them back down again. His hunger for revenge is born from the constant defeat he experiences from day to day and especially from the one person who is supposed to love him, his creator, who also denies him a mate. He carries a lot of frustration, that he needs to direct somewhere, and the choice falls upon Frankenstein, the first to ever betray him. Despite all of this, Frankensteins monster never gives really gives up his hope to find a place to belong. This comes to show in the way that he treats the girl he meets in the woods, Frankensteins son, and in the very end of the story, when Frankenstein himself dies. The monster begs for forgiveness and swears to kill himself. His will to live died with Frankenstein, his only connection to the human world, that he longed for so desperatly. Comparative analasys: Frankenstein and his creation are similar to each other in different aspects. Frankenstein has created a thing so dreadful, that no one will ever love it, and has in another sense already killed all the possible loved ones in his creations life. His monster, on the other hand, actually kills all the people Frankenstein holds most dear, continuing the evil circle. The monster runs away from people and hides in the mountans, so that he will not experience any more pain, whilst Frankenstein runs away from the monster and his thought and feelings about his creation, but they both end up being drawn to one another, and the thing that bonds them together. They are both, at some point, after revenge. The monster chases Frankenstein down to confront him and Frankenstein chases the monster, after it has killed his family. The hunter becomes the hunted. They both have big dreams, Frankenstein about creating life and his creation about living life, but none of these dreams ever come true for any of them. Sometimes it seems that Frankenstein and his monster are two halves of the same person, each half competing for the chance to be the ruler of the other half, or that the monster is the result of Frankensteins ego or conscience, that comes back to haunt him. They are forever bonded with each other, the bond of creator and creation, and Frankensteins unwillingness to accept this, leaves both mens lives ruined in the end. Themes of the text Invironment vs. heritage The question is very relevant for this story. This novel can be a great starting point, if you wish to discuss, if heritage or the invironment has the greatest inpact upon someone, who is new in this world. In this story, it is defienetly the invironment that has the greatest influence upon Frankensteins creature. You could say that everyone is born with the same basic needs. The need for love, companionship and a place to belong. Nobody is born evil, niether is the creature, despite the fact, that he is death brought back to life. He has the same needs as everybody else, but the constant rejections of his well-intended feelings and his failures, changes him into something he did not have to become, changes him into what everybody thinks that he is; a monster. In this case, the invironment has destroyed something potentially beautiful. Love and revenge: The story is based upon the topic of love and revenge, in all its different forms. The monster wants only to be loved and accepted in a society that rejects him because of his looks. This superficial society does not look beyond his scary appereance, and he swears that he will revenge himself, which he does to his fullest, killing everyone that Frankenstein holds dear. He claims to hate the human world at this point, but at the same time, he longs for it with an aching heart. Frankenstein never realises that his creation is more than a monster, and feels very little regret towards the treatment of it, he feels that it is more important to protect mankind against this threat than it is to take responsebility of his actions. He spends the rest of his life following the monster to the North Pole, where he dies on board a ship, never succeeding in revenging his loved ones. When the monster discoveres this, he gives up; his last connection to the world has dissappeared, and he begs for forgiveness, and swears to burn himself and all evidence of his existence. Frankenstein only felt love for his creation when it not yet excisted and was only in his mind. As soon as it came to life, he rejected it and never thought a kind thought about it again. The creation is here his opposite; he starts off only wanting to love, later wanting revenge, but with the hope of recieving love still deeply a part of his nature. The modern Prometheus Mary Shelley subtitles her novel, The modern Prometheus. Prometheus, an ancient Greek, stole fire from the gods, to give to the humans. As punishment for his undoing, he was chaining to a rock, and everyday a bird-of-prey would come and eat his liver, which would then grow back. Mary Shelley did not chose this subtitle for no reason. It most certainly relates to Victor Frankenstein and his creation. Victor stole a power from God, the power to create life, and he is severly punished for this. His horrible creation comes back to haunt both his mind and his psysical being every day for the rest of his life. Victors gift to the world causes death, and the same does Prometheus. Though both men meant well, their interference with forces beyond their power, brings only death and destruction, especially for the two men themselves. Perspective to the period: The novel was written during an early phase of the Industrial Revolution, at a time of dramatic advances in science and technology. The fact that the creation rebels against its creator, can be a warning from Mary Shelley, that science can lead to terrible consequences, if you do not take responsebility for your actions. This was a time, where young scientist felt, that the world was at their feet and that they had endless possibilities, and experiments to try and revive dead bodies did indeed take place when Mary grew up, and has most likely inspired her to write the story. This was also a time, were people were both facinated and scared by the new science of electricity, and Mary chose to include both this science and the science of chemistry, which was of high interest to the generel public and to herself, in her book. Mary Shelley wrote her novel not long after the gothic novels heyday in the 1790s, and there was definitely a market for these kind of stories. It is hard to make a final conclusion of this book. There are so many topics and themes, questions and feelings to discuss, that it would take forever to get through them all, which makes this book more than just a horror story meant to frighten you. This is a novel of great seriousness, and you instantly get caught in the whirlwind of emotions, that Frankenstein and his creation both have. Mary Shelley tries in her book, to dissect the human nature, while telling a captivating tale of two mens journey through life, and the terrible things humans can do to one another. Rikke Juelsgaard Petersen Til d. 25, september 07 Engelsk aflevering EG, 2e 1 Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Mary Shelley section.

Basic Concepts And Principles In Modern Musical Analysis Music Essay

Basic Concepts And Principles In Modern Musical Analysis Music Essay Abstract: this subject is fascinating through the interpretive possibilities that it opens. The accurate understanding and practice of Schenkers theories leads to a different perception of the music and to a natural way of performing. Therefore, we consider the schenkerian analysis not only a theory, but also a comprehensive way of understanding musical works. Schenkerian analysis provides a comprehensive view of music from the small to the large representing thus a great asset to hearing understanding and performance. Key words: musical analysis, Schenker, background, middle ground, foreground, prolongation, structure 1.  Introduction The schenkerian analyses are a method based on the theories of Heinrich Schenker whose purpose is to disclose the structure of a tonal piece, through musical notations. The basic principle in the structure of a piece for the Schenkerian analysis is showing hierarchical relationships amongst the notes of the passage through making reductions of the music and through a specialized symbolic musical notation that Schenker developed to demonstrate various techniques of prolongation. He considered that the deep, long-range structure of a piece of music has no particular rhythm, so the musical reductions of Schenkerian analysis are usually arrhythmic. Schenkerian analysis the long-range structure is defined Background (or fundamental structure, while the surface aspects of the music are the Foreground. One can state the idea that the background of a musical composition is arrhythmic or, rhythm is a characteristic of the musical foreground. In the most common way, the purpose of schenkerian analysis is to omit the unessential and to emphasize the important relations. 2. Basic concepts There are many methods of approaching the schenkerian analyses. Schenker, followed by Jonas, began by describing the essential structure of music: the triad and its linear unfolding through arpeggiation and through passing and auxiliary notes, in its most abstract form. Next, they discuss the forms that these structures could have in any musical context. Schenkers approach relies on the fundamental principles of the harmony and counterpoint. Allen Forte and Steven E. Gilbert, on the other hand, began by showing different apparitions of the arpeggiation, passing tones, etc. at the note-to-note level before showing the way to use these in order to create musical forms of greater proportions. Other music theorists, for example Felix Salzer and Carl Schachter, added to and spread Schenkers ideas. By the 1960s, Schenkerian analysis had begun to attract renewed interest, and by the 1980s, it had become one of the main analytical methods used by many music theorists. 2.1. Structural concepts Fundamental structure (Ursatz) is the representative progression of which all tonal pieces are hypothetically an elaboration that Schenker believed to be (along with a number of variants) the most basic expression of tonal music. It consists of the descending progression from , or in the upper part (Urlinie) over a bass progression (Bassbrechung) that emerges in the background as part of the fundamental structure. This progression represents one of the simplest contrapuntal expressions of the I-V-I unit. Schenker described the fundamental structure as a tension span, as the tension introduced by the initial is not resolved until the music reaches the final over the tonic. For Schenker, this tension span was what tied complex and various pieces of music into a single coherent work of art. Schenker considered that any piece of tonal music can be described as an elaboration of this pattern: tonal pieces generally start with I and the V I epitomizes the final perfect cadence of the piece. Nevertheless, in a longer piece, whole sections may prolong V (Schenker called this a tonicization of the dominant) and also, there may be other harmonic sections prolonged in between the initial I and the V of the final perfect cadence, the bass of the fundamental structure appearing in many different layers of a piece. The bass line is only a harmonic progression and Schenkers theory seeks to comprehend music in terms of a two-part contrapuntal structure. Layer or level (Schicht) represents the fundamental idea of Schenkerian theory that music consists of a series of layers of elaboration. Schenker suggests that simpler layers underpin the complex ones in almost the way in which a variation on a theme supports the surface of the music. Background (Hintergrund) refers only to the Ursatz form that covers a whole piece or movement. In some cases, one can use it to refer to the Ursatz and its immediate prolongations (like the initial ascent etc.) that are usually part of the first level of the middle ground. In theory, one simple progression that spans the entire piece is the foundation on which the composer created the entire piece. First-level Middle ground refers to the immediate prolongations of the Ursatz that Schenker restricts to a small number of strictly defined forms. The background sometimes refers to this level of the structure as elaborations. Middle ground (Mittelgrund) is the surface layer of a piece of music, the background being the deepest layer, of which the whole piece is understood to be an elaboration. The middle ground has a variable number of occurring layers that a Schenkerian analysis will identify between the foreground and background. Foreground (Vordergrund) is the surface layer of the music. Schenker regards music in terms of layers of elaboration from the profound structure to the surface. Prolongation refers to the elaboration of contrapuntal structures. Schenker considered that all tonal pieces are therefore, a prolongation of the Ursatz. The concept of prolongation lies at the foundation of Schenkers theory and is the most influential element of it. Using the basic principles of consonance and dissonance from species counterpoint, Schenker identifies a number of common linear units that he calls diminutions. Because diminutions must prolong a harmonic unit in Schenkers theory, only a note that is consonant with the prevailing harmony can generate a diminution. Prolongation is an extension through time (by an arpeggio, for example) in a piece of music of a harmonic unit (a chord or a note from that chord). Schenkers analyses, at their simplest level, show how linear units prolong harmonic units. Tonicization is the Schenkerian term for modulation. The use of this term highlights the fact that a tonal piece corresponds to a contrapuntal realization of the tonic. 2.2. Melodic concepts Fundamental descent (Urlinie) is the top line of the two-part Ursatz, comprising a note by note descent from , or to . The term reflects Schenkers belief that this archetypal descending motion underlines all tonal pieces. Primary tone (Kopfton) is the first note of the Urlinie (meaning the , or ). Finding the correct primary tone is an important aspect as it can make a considerable difference to the rest of an analysis. If the Urlinie appears is elaborated of an initial ascent, the Kopfton will not be found right at the beginning of the piece. Bass Arpeggiation (Bassbrechung) literally translates as breaking of the bass, but is more often referred to as the bass arpeggiation. The Bassbrechung is the I-V-I that support the Urlinie as part of the Ursatz, including all the elaborations of this pattern. The basic harmonic progression appears as contrapuntally elaborated, normally creating harmonic patterns such as I-III-V-I or I-II-V-I. Diminution refers to the embellishment of simpler musical structures beneath the surface of the music and describes the process of linear units prolonging harmonic ones. The process of analysis is partly one of looking behind the surface diminutions, but Schenker was more interested in a process of generation from background to foreground (composing-out). Schenker used the basic principles of consonance and dissonance from species counterpoint in order to identify a number of common linear units that he calls diminutions. His analyses, at their most simple level, show how these linear units prolong harmonic units. A theme and variations is a very good example of diminution, because in this genre, the theme supports increasingly complex figurations. Each variation is different but the presence of the theme beneath the surface of the music unifies the whole work. Arpeggiation (Brechung) is a simple elaboration that consists of notes consonant with the prolonged harmony. It is a single movement through notes from a harmony, in the same direction, prolonging a harmonic unit by arpeggiating the notes of the triad. An arpeggiation can only prolong a triad with the exception of the dominant seventh chord. This chord is universal in tonal music that in many situations it makes sense to treat it as a consonant sonority like the triad. In Schenkerian analysis, diminutions usually prolong a harmonic unit and a particular note from that unit. In the arpeggiation (where all the notes belong to the triad), just context could enlighten the main note that is being prolonged, although diminutions are always a prolongation of either their first or last note. The Schenkerian model is a dynamic one the diminution is not static but moves either to or from a principal note. Consonant Skip is a term used by Allen Forte and by some Schenkerian analysts to refer to simple two-note (or incomplete) arpeggiations, which usually constitute some sort of unfolding. The term refers to a particular diminution in which the voice leaps from one note of the harmonic unit to another note of the same harmonic unit. A consonant skip contains only notes from the harmonic unit that it is prolonging. In a Schenkerian analysis, diminutions generally prolong either a harmonic unit or a particular note from it. As in an arpeggiation, both notes from the consonant skip are belong to the triad of the harmonic unit, thus the prolonged note depends on the context. Neighbour Note (Nebennote) is a diminution in which a note is ornamented by a figure that moves stepwise to a note above or below the original note before returning to it. In other words, it elaborates a note of a chord through stepwise motion to and/or from a dissonance. Neighbour notes may also be incomplete (move to a note a step away and not return to the original note). A complete neighbour note moves stepwise a dissonance and back again. An incomplete neighbour note can move from the dissonance to the consonance or the reverse. Passing note (Durchgang) Some Schenkerian analysts recognize most passing note progressions as Linear Progressions (see separate entry). In order to be a true linear progression, however, the passing note must be the elaboration of a harmony. A passing note right at the foreground (surface) of a piece of music may not always fulfil this condition. Examples might be a chromatic passing note or a note that connects two surface harmonies. Mixture (Mischung) is the flattening or sharpening of scale degrees, the most common of which being to à ¢Ã¢â€ž ¢Ã‚ ­, which in the first level middle ground can change the mode of the piece from major to minor. It is ornamentation rather than a diminution because it does not derive from the rules of strict counterpoint. It describes the flattening or sharpening of scale degrees and it usually appears in the first level middle ground in connection with as shown below. It has the effect of changing the mode from major to minor and back again. Schenker most often uses the term mixture to refer to alternation between the major and minor third in a tonic triad. Linear progression (Zug) is the Schenkerian term for a passing note intensification that elaborates a specific harmony in the middle ground or foreground. Its first and last notes must be a part of the harmony at the end of the progression. A linear progression can be either ascending or descending, therefore it moves only in one direction. Schenker appreciates that the linear progression is the unfolding of a two-note interval made up of its initial and final note. In other words, the interval between these notes (first and last) gives a linear progression its name. The simplest linear progression is the passing note, which is dissonant as it passes from one consonant note to another. 3. Basic principles Heinrich Schenkers analytical approach of music engages looking beneath the surface of music in order to understand how it connects into larger spans. It is important for the performer to reflect on the direction and shape of the phrases, in a natural and logical way. At the basic level, one can understand Schenkers ideas as a formalization of his intuitive thinking that music should not be regarded as a series of notes, but in terms of larger-scale shapes and patterns. The basic method of Schenkerian analysis is to show how elaborations such as neighbour and passing notes, progressions and arpeggios group into forming music. These patterns do not appear only on the surface of the music but that they also span much larger fragments. Schenker regarded music like a superposition of layers/levels, the surface layer being the elaboration of a simpler layer beneath that surface. The surface of the music defines as the foreground, the deepest layer the background and those layers of elaborations in between refer to as the middle ground. In addition, an important feature of Schenkerian analysis is showing how melodic figures are elaborations of harmonies. The basic ideas stated by Schenker in his theory are quite simple, but the process of analysis is a complicated one, mostly because music itself is complex. Analysts that approached this kind of analysis found that it provides richly rewarding insights into the shape and structure of tonal music. Schenker is probably most famous for his suggestion that musical works are elaborations of the basic model that he called the Ursatz a two-voice reductive structure forming the basis for an analytical approach that emphasizes the essential simplicity of tonal music. It shows how pieces are contrapuntal elaborations of a tonic chord. Schenker stated that we could reduce a piece of music to the Ursatz, and we can explore the complexities of the piece by considering them in relation to this simple model. Some theorists (like Steven Porter (2002)) that approached schenkerian analysis referred to grammar in order to explain the principles of Schenkers theories, taking into consideration that notes and chords that belong to a musical phrase are like words into a sentence. One analyzes a word as a part of speech, having, in the same time, a function within the sentence. Felix Salzer (1952) introduced a concept that describes very well the schenkerian analysis: structural hearing. He considered that the understanding of tonal music is a matter of hearing, and the ear has to be trained to hear not only a succession of tones (sounds), melodic lines and chord progressions, but also their coherence and structural signification. Schenkers conceptions rely on an observation that represents the corner stone of his research: the distinction of the chord grammar and chord signification (Salzer, 1952). Chord grammar signifies the usual method of analysis, this being the most important feature of a harmonic analysis that has the purpose of status recognition of the chords in a musical piece. On the other hand, the study of chord signification shows his specific role in a phrase, or an entire piece. Schenker discovered that the roles that chords have are diverse. Two identical chords that appear in the same phrase can fulfil different functions. The signification and the function of a sound or of a chord depend on the direction of the movement and on the purpose, in other words on the context. Schenker made a distinction between structure chords and prolongation chords, by means of chord grammar and signification, taking into consideration the direction of music this being the main idea of his approach. Salzer considered that this method of understanding the movement of music represents the instinctive perception of a truly musical ear; this can be called structural hearing. The structural outline and framework work signifies the main movement to its goal, showing the shortest way to it. Nevertheless, the tension of music consists in modifications, expansions and elaborations called prolongations of the structure, and the artistic coherence rises if one understands their basic direction. The distinction between structure and prolongation led Schenker to a new conception of the functions of harmony and counterpoint in creating organic unity: not all chords are of harmonic origin, this statement having an effect on understanding the music. Schenkers harmony explains the tonal system like a group of major triads derived from the harmonic series, like a vertical aspect of music. His theories of counterpoint show the way that simple progressions can be ornamented following simple rules based on the succession of consonant and dissonant intervals, like a horizontal aspect of the music. In Free Composition (1953), Schenker explains the way that harmony and counterpoint combine in tonal compositions. Using the basic principles of consonance and dissonance from the species counterpoint, Schenker identifies a number of common linear units that he named diminutions, showing, by means of concrete analyses, the way that these linear units prolong harmonic units. The concept of prolongation is the base of the schenkerian theories and because the diminutions have to prolong a harmonic unity, just a consonant tone with the harmony can give rise to a diminution. Beside the structural and prolongation roles or the diverse functions that chords can have, they can have harmonic or contrapuntal importance. A chord performs a harmonic function in the context of a fundamental progression. Schenker considers that the term harmony should only refer to members of a harmonic progression; these are harmonies in the true sense of the word, because they connect based on a harmonic association (Salzer, 1953). Chords not based on harmonic associations are products of motion, direction, and embellishment and have a horizontal tendency. Harmonic chords are also structural chords (they constitute the structural framework), and the contrapuntal ones are chords of prolongation (they prolong and elaborate the space between members of harmonic progressions).

Relationships and Setting in Willa Cathers O Pioneers! Essay -- Cathe

Relationships and Setting in Willa Cather's O Pioneers! O Pioneers!(1993) by Willa Cather begins on a blustery winter day, in the town of Hanover, Nebraska, sometime between 1883 and 1890. The narrator introduces four main character: the very young Emil Bergson; his older sister, Alexandra; her friend Carl Linstrum; and a little girl, Marie Shabata. Alexandra's father, John Bergson, is dying. He tells his two oldest sons, Lou and Oscar, that he is leaving the farmland, and all of what he has accomplished, to their sister. Alexandra is a hard working young lady and will do anything to make her father proud. When the drought and depression struck three years later, Alexandra's determination to keep the farm allows her to persevere. Many families, including Carl Linstrum's, sell their farms and move away. However, Alexandra believes in the promise of the country and staying true to her father's word. She convinces her brothers to re-mortgage their farm and buy more land. She also convinces them to look for more innovative farming techniques. With the plot moving ahead very qu...

Time Management Essay -- essays research papers

TIME MANAGEMENT FOR 110   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the most important self-management skills involves controlling and budgeting your time. Gaining control of your time and your life involves identifying time wasters and determining your peak energy level. Managing time also involves identifying goals, setting priorities, and creating an action plan. Determining what tasks should be done first and overcoming procrastination are major factors in creating success. All these steps and issues involve critical thinking skills. Use critical thinking to answer these questions. You will need to use resource materials such as the Internet and the library to answer some of the questions. Justify and support your answers. Please write in complete sentences unless otherwise instructed. Some of the questions (there are 18) have multiple parts. Be sure to answer all parts. Note: Make sure you have read the online lecture in the course site before attempting this assignment. 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What are the major activities and tasks that take up most of your time? †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Work †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  School 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What activities or things cause you to waste time? †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Television †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Time out for myself †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Online Surfing 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  What activities can you eliminate or reduce in order to create more time, especially for online college work? I could reduce or eliminate all together the time I allow myself to watch television, in which I already took the TV out of my room where I do all work and school work. This has reduced the time it takes to complete a task already. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Define Circadian Rhythm. When is your high-energy time? What activities are you completing during this high-energy time? Circadian Rhythm is a metabolic or behavior pattern that repeats in cycles of about every 24 hours. It is a rhythm that spans about a twenty-four-hour day, such as that of the sleep-waking cycle. Circadian rhythms in humans originate from a clock circuit in the hypothalamus that is set by i... ...;  8m Time to spare:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  52m Day 6: Saturday   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Watch TV.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  5h Online Class.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  8h Study other class.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2h Misc. (fun)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  4h Go to sleep.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  5h   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Total Hours:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  24h Total Minutes:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  0m Time to spare:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  0m Day 7: Sunday   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Watch TV.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  5h Online Class.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  8h Study other class.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2h Misc. (fun)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  4h Go to sleep.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  5h   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Total Hours:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  24h Total Minutes:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  0m Time to spare:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  0m Spare Time at the end of the week= 4.3 hours to spare for me

Christian Mission to Muslims :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Since September 11, the Muslim communities have been under siege by the media and the entire world. We have seen how the miss conceptions of Muslims have spread all over the media. As a Christian I begin to think that they should be treated as normal people. â€Å"When a radical fundamentalist, start a sect with ideas that differ from what the Muslim religion stands for, we begin to stereotype all the Muslims as the same. But when a Christian begins a killing spree a cross the nation, know one stereotypes all the Christians as one.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As a Seventh Day Adventists Christian, I believe that we as a church body, we have to reach this people with compassion and understanding, because not all of them are evil like they are shown to be. I believe that ignorance is the root of hatred, an as Christians, we should be like Jesus, understand them, and cater to their needs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To be able to understand the Muslim mind we have to learn their background and how their religion was develop. Is hard to learn when you already have preconceived prejudices about Muslims, but that’s when we have to pray to God for wisdom, understanding, and an open mind.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Islam originated in the seventh century A.D. During this time, Islamic scholars were very fluent in the areas of physics, mathematics, chemistry, astronomy, geography and medicine. Muhammed (570-632 A.D.) was the founder of Islam. He became an orphaned at the age of six, when he became a teenager he decided to join the merchants who traded goods from town to town along the caravan routes. He became a master trader for a businesswoman, then married the woman who was a widow.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Muhammed was a man with a lot of spiritual insight, but he became depressed by the commercial greed and the excess of polytheism around him, he spent most of the time in seclusion and meditation. Muslims believe that while Muhammed was meditating in a cave, the archangel Gabriel appeared to him. The vision came to him first in 610 A.D. and thereafter at intervals over the next 22 years, revealing the word of Allah. Muhammed is believed to have been illiterate, for that reasons he dictated the visions to his companions who wrote them down. Then 30n years later the writings were compiled in the Koran. The Koran is the Muslims most holy book. Christian Mission to Muslims :: essays research papers   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Since September 11, the Muslim communities have been under siege by the media and the entire world. We have seen how the miss conceptions of Muslims have spread all over the media. As a Christian I begin to think that they should be treated as normal people. â€Å"When a radical fundamentalist, start a sect with ideas that differ from what the Muslim religion stands for, we begin to stereotype all the Muslims as the same. But when a Christian begins a killing spree a cross the nation, know one stereotypes all the Christians as one.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As a Seventh Day Adventists Christian, I believe that we as a church body, we have to reach this people with compassion and understanding, because not all of them are evil like they are shown to be. I believe that ignorance is the root of hatred, an as Christians, we should be like Jesus, understand them, and cater to their needs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To be able to understand the Muslim mind we have to learn their background and how their religion was develop. Is hard to learn when you already have preconceived prejudices about Muslims, but that’s when we have to pray to God for wisdom, understanding, and an open mind.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Islam originated in the seventh century A.D. During this time, Islamic scholars were very fluent in the areas of physics, mathematics, chemistry, astronomy, geography and medicine. Muhammed (570-632 A.D.) was the founder of Islam. He became an orphaned at the age of six, when he became a teenager he decided to join the merchants who traded goods from town to town along the caravan routes. He became a master trader for a businesswoman, then married the woman who was a widow.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Muhammed was a man with a lot of spiritual insight, but he became depressed by the commercial greed and the excess of polytheism around him, he spent most of the time in seclusion and meditation. Muslims believe that while Muhammed was meditating in a cave, the archangel Gabriel appeared to him. The vision came to him first in 610 A.D. and thereafter at intervals over the next 22 years, revealing the word of Allah. Muhammed is believed to have been illiterate, for that reasons he dictated the visions to his companions who wrote them down. Then 30n years later the writings were compiled in the Koran. The Koran is the Muslims most holy book.

Health Care Policy Making in the Federal System Essay

Patient Protection and Affordable Health Care Act Open policymaking in the United States is molded on a basic level by American federalism. Federalism in the United States is defined as â€Å"a governmental system whereby power and authority are shared by national and state governments, with ultimate authority derived from the people†Ã‚  (Levin-Waldman, 2012). The interaction between the levels makes a muddled approach process. Government policymakers and bureaucrats at diverse levels of the elected framework – national, state and local – regularly have truly distinctive interests and points of view on how specific policies ought to be developed and implemented. In regards to health care policy, the national government has accepted essential obligation, with states playing a significant but auxiliary role. For national and state policymakers, there are three key objectives in healthcare policy: control services expenses of health care, improve the quality of health care, and allow for all citizens to have access to health care. The challenge is to beat the long-standing status of the U.S. as a nation with high medical costs paired with deficient coverage for a number of its citizens. On March 23, 2010, after a multitude of debates and votes, Congress approved and President Obama signed into law the Patient Protection and Affordable Health Care Act (obamacarefacts.com). This is the most comprehensive health care law passed at the national level, and possibly the most controversial too. This enactment is giving a real test of American federalism. Each state is required to create an exchange in which people can look for a competitive plan. This online exchange will offer individual people, families, and small businesses a venue in which to review suitable and affordable plans. In the event that a state does not make an exchange, the national government will do so. There are many debates surrounding this new law as many feel it will do more harm than good. Under the law, tens of millions of uninsured will get access to competitive, quality, health insurance. In order to help cover the many millions who require monetary assistance, there are new taxes, generally felt by the upper income levels. These taxes are in the form of mandates; either as an individual mandate or an employer mandate. These mandates require individuals to obtain coverage, get an exemption, or pay a fee. However, it is estimated that over half of those uninsured prior to this new law, will be able to obtain free or low cost coverage thru their State’s exchange. Similarly, employers with an equivalent of 50 full time employees must provide health insurance coverage to their employees or they will have to pay a fine. This has prompted some businesses to cut employee hours to avoid meeting the criteria, although small businesses can qualify for up to 50% of their employees premium costs. (healthcarereform.procon.org) While the law allows young adults to remain on their parents plans until the age of 26, there is concern that the premiums these young adults could be paying on their own would help offset the rise in premiums due to the sick. In order for the premiums to remain low, there needs to be a significantly large healthy pool of insured. Their premiums will offset the expenses the insurance company will have to pay for the claims of those that are sick. If healthy young adults remain on their parent’s plans longer, it decreases the cushion the insurance company has to cover such claims. Since you cannot be dropped from your plan when you become sick, insurance companies must cover the sick and this causes premiums to rise. (healthcarereformprocon.org) Many question whether or not the government can enforce such a law. The U.S. Constitution makes no reference to health care policy or services as rights. To play a role in such, the national government must turn to less particular parts of the Constitution, for example, the  obligation to â€Å"promote the general welfare,† provide â€Å"equal protection under the laws,† or â€Å"regulate commerce among the states.† State constitutions by and large make no particular reference to health awareness as a commitment of state government or right of residents. Likewise with the national government, state power around there rests principally on more general protected provisions to promote the benefit of everyone. The law was presented to the Supreme Court and upheld by a vote of 5 to 4. â€Å"The Affordable Care Act’s requirement that certain individuals pay a financial  penalty for not obtaining health insurance may reasonably be characterized as a tax,† Chief Justice Roberts wrote in the majority opinion. â€Å"Because the Constitution permits such a tax, it is not our role to forbid it, or to pass upon its wisdom or fairness.† (nytimes.com). Conclusion Policymaking in our federal system is laden with challenges. In health care, policymakers and other government authorities at all three levels of government assume vital and interconnected parts. Policymaking in our federal system has served the United States well for a long time, yet it remains a real test. It is uncommon that one level of government can bring an approach through to its fulfillment. Rather, most arrangements incorporate an imperative intergovernmental element. The unpredictability of intergovernmental policymaking and the numerous purposes of potential restriction in an elected framework put a premium on practicing successful initiative and making intergovernmental connections. To push ahead in the 21st Century, national, state and local policymakers will require a full set of administration and interpersonal abilities to unite all parties in the federalism process of policy making. References Levin-Waldman, O. M. (2012). American government. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education, Inc. Liptak, A. (2012, June 28). Supreme Court Upholds Health Care Law, 5-4, in Victory for Obama. The New York Times. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com Is the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) Good for America? (2010, September). Retrieved from http://healthcarereform.procon.org The Pros and Cons of Obamacare. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://obamacarefacts.com

Can Machines Think?

Can Machines Think ? This paper regards several points of view on the subject of, what is commonly referred to as Artificial Intelligence, or AI. AI is the attempt to make machines, specifically computers, perform intelligently through programming. Already, this definition has a problem in that the word intelligence can have many interpretations. This essay will attempt to put forward some ideas for how to approach this problem.It could be said that the human brain is nothing more than a machine, and as we know it to be capable of thought it would be fair to surmise that therefore machines can think and it is probably this, or a similar premise that inspired AI. However, within AI there are many schools of thought. Some believe that if a computer can be programmed correctly to emulate certain human processes, then it is to all intense and purposes thinking as we do.One of the early pioneers in the world of computers, Alan Turing, outlined a test in which participants are asked to int errogate a computer terminal in order to determine whether they are communicating with a human, or a computer program. Examples of programs which were put through the Turing test are ELIZA and SHRDLU both of which attempted to emulate one side of human conversation. But even if these programs did appear to be totally human, could they be said to actually be thinking ? John Searle(1984) puts forward a scenario in an attempt to devalue this idea.He refers to a program by Roger Schank at Yale university which, after being given a story will be able to answer questions regarding it. It would seem at the outset that this program would therefore be understanding the story. Searle then argues that despite not being able to understand Chinese, he would, under the correct circumstances, be able to answers Chinese questions in Chinese, relating to a story also written in Chinese. The scenario is summarised as follows; Sitting isolated in a room, Searle is given a wad of Chinese script, follow ed by another. In addition he is given a list of English rules, for correctly correlating the two.By simply following the English rules, he writes a third set of chinese words which he then returns to someone outside the room. If the first set of script was a story, the second a set of questions, he could be said to be answering the questions. In fact, from the point of view of someone standing outside the room, he would be correctly answering the questions, and thus would appear to be conversant in Chinese. This of course is not the case, as Searle would have no knowledge of what the story was about, and what the questions were asking – he would not be understanding the story.This argument is an attempt to demonstrate that although a computer program appears to be understanding a story, it is merely obeying simple instructions, and has no understanding at all. â€Å"In the linguistic jargon, they have only a syntax but no semantics† (Searle 1984) However, depending on hown one observes this problem, it can appear very differently. Regarding the entire room, the person in the room (to whom I shall refer for the sake of continuity of terms as a demon), the scripts and the person outside as a whole, we do have a system that is capable of reading and interpreting Chinese.Hofstadter extends this idea by modifying the scenario so as to shrink it to brain size, the scripts becoming neurons and so on. This effectively creates a system equivalent to the human brain. So what would be the difference between the two. Why would one be acceptable as a thinking system and one not ? Searle frequently refers to ‘causal properties' and ‘intentionality' stating that the artificial system proposed by Hofstadter would lack both of them, and that somehow the human brian has both.It is here where the subject of duality comes into the fore. Are the mind and the brain one and the same, or are they separate entities ? Many religions favour this dualist approa ch and refer to the mind, as it is in this instance, as a persons soul and regard it as being separate to the physical self. Whether the mind is separate or not, Searle's argument implies that the human brain has a mind, because of its natural causal properties, yet an artificial machine does not. But what are these natural causal properties, and from what do they derive ?Are they a result of the biological material from which the brain is made, are they a result of the brain's structure or are they a result of a breath of life from the lips of a god ? â€Å"Machines as simple as thermostats can be said to have beliefs, and having beliefs seems to be a characteristic of most machines capable of problem solving performance† (McCarthy 1979) At what point does a functioning machine gain intentionality ? Here Zenon Pylyshyn is cited from a reply made to Searle, to illustrate the complex connotations involved in the idea of the natural causal property of the brain. If more and mor e of the cells in your brain were to be replaced by integrated circuit chips, programmed in such a way as to keep the input-output function of each unit identical to that of the unit being replaced, you would in all likelihood just keep right on speaking exactly as you are doing now except that you would eventually stop meaning anything by it. What we outside observers might take to be words would become for you just certain noises that circuits caused you to make. Surely, the person in the above example would have conscious, intentional thought, despite being constructed from artificial parts. Or would this person simply be acting in the same role as the chinese room demon ? Another area rapidly developing in AI is Parallel Distributed Processing, or neural networks. These are complex structures that emulate the brains neural structure, and are usually modelled within a computer, although in theory there is nothing to stop them being constructed electronically, or even mechanically !The effect of a neural network is similar to that in Pylyshyn's example – an electronic replacement for a part of the brain. Functionally it operates almost identically to a brain and can be made to do tasks similar to those performed by Schank's story program. Could a neural network equivalent be said to have any more ‘causal properties' than just a computer program ? Searle acknowledges that since we are merely machines, it is possible that machines can think.However he finds the idea of a computer program thinking implausible. However, if we could model a brain, with atomic accuracy in a computers memory, for example in the form of a neural network, surely it would work in exactly the same way and would therefore be just as valid a thinker as a human. It seems that this whole debate rests its most basic principles on a belief; either one believes that our ‘intentionality' derives purely from our brain and its structure or one doesn't.Even if we ever do manage to construct an exact replica of a brain that appears to work identically to the real thing, how could we tell if it really is a conscious entity with true intentionality, or merely acting like the chinese room demon ? Indeed, how can we define conscious, and intentionality in that context. There must be a level of functioning or reasoning that we can use as a cut-off point for deciding whether or not something is alive and thinking. Descartes stated â€Å"I think. Therefore, I am†. But was he thinking, or merely following a mechanical pattern, with no real understanding of the words ? References Can Machines Think? Can Machines Think ? This paper regards several points of view on the subject of, what is commonly referred to as Artificial Intelligence, or AI. AI is the attempt to make machines, specifically computers, perform intelligently through programming. Already, this definition has a problem in that the word intelligence can have many interpretations. This essay will attempt to put forward some ideas for how to approach this problem.It could be said that the human brain is nothing more than a machine, and as we know it to be capable of thought it would be fair to surmise that therefore machines can think and it is probably this, or a similar premise that inspired AI. However, within AI there are many schools of thought. Some believe that if a computer can be programmed correctly to emulate certain human processes, then it is to all intense and purposes thinking as we do.One of the early pioneers in the world of computers, Alan Turing, outlined a test in which participants are asked to int errogate a computer terminal in order to determine whether they are communicating with a human, or a computer program. Examples of programs which were put through the Turing test are ELIZA and SHRDLU both of which attempted to emulate one side of human conversation. But even if these programs did appear to be totally human, could they be said to actually be thinking ? John Searle(1984) puts forward a scenario in an attempt to devalue this idea.He refers to a program by Roger Schank at Yale university which, after being given a story will be able to answer questions regarding it. It would seem at the outset that this program would therefore be understanding the story. Searle then argues that despite not being able to understand Chinese, he would, under the correct circumstances, be able to answers Chinese questions in Chinese, relating to a story also written in Chinese. The scenario is summarised as follows; Sitting isolated in a room, Searle is given a wad of Chinese script, follow ed by another. In addition he is given a list of English rules, for correctly correlating the two.By simply following the English rules, he writes a third set of chinese words which he then returns to someone outside the room. If the first set of script was a story, the second a set of questions, he could be said to be answering the questions. In fact, from the point of view of someone standing outside the room, he would be correctly answering the questions, and thus would appear to be conversant in Chinese. This of course is not the case, as Searle would have no knowledge of what the story was about, and what the questions were asking – he would not be understanding the story.This argument is an attempt to demonstrate that although a computer program appears to be understanding a story, it is merely obeying simple instructions, and has no understanding at all. â€Å"In the linguistic jargon, they have only a syntax but no semantics† (Searle 1984) However, depending on hown one observes this problem, it can appear very differently. Regarding the entire room, the person in the room (to whom I shall refer for the sake of continuity of terms as a demon), the scripts and the person outside as a whole, we do have a system that is capable of reading and interpreting Chinese.Hofstadter extends this idea by modifying the scenario so as to shrink it to brain size, the scripts becoming neurons and so on. This effectively creates a system equivalent to the human brain. So what would be the difference between the two. Why would one be acceptable as a thinking system and one not ? Searle frequently refers to ‘causal properties' and ‘intentionality' stating that the artificial system proposed by Hofstadter would lack both of them, and that somehow the human brian has both.It is here where the subject of duality comes into the fore. Are the mind and the brain one and the same, or are they separate entities ? Many religions favour this dualist approa ch and refer to the mind, as it is in this instance, as a persons soul and regard it as being separate to the physical self. Whether the mind is separate or not, Searle's argument implies that the human brain has a mind, because of its natural causal properties, yet an artificial machine does not. But what are these natural causal properties, and from what do they derive ?Are they a result of the biological material from which the brain is made, are they a result of the brain's structure or are they a result of a breath of life from the lips of a god ? â€Å"Machines as simple as thermostats can be said to have beliefs, and having beliefs seems to be a characteristic of most machines capable of problem solving performance† (McCarthy 1979) At what point does a functioning machine gain intentionality ? Here Zenon Pylyshyn is cited from a reply made to Searle, to illustrate the complex connotations involved in the idea of the natural causal property of the brain. If more and mor e of the cells in your brain were to be replaced by integrated circuit chips, programmed in such a way as to keep the input-output function of each unit identical to that of the unit being replaced, you would in all likelihood just keep right on speaking exactly as you are doing now except that you would eventually stop meaning anything by it. What we outside observers might take to be words would become for you just certain noises that circuits caused you to make. Surely, the person in the above example would have conscious, intentional thought, despite being constructed from artificial parts. Or would this person simply be acting in the same role as the chinese room demon ? Another area rapidly developing in AI is Parallel Distributed Processing, or neural networks. These are complex structures that emulate the brains neural structure, and are usually modelled within a computer, although in theory there is nothing to stop them being constructed electronically, or even mechanically !The effect of a neural network is similar to that in Pylyshyn's example – an electronic replacement for a part of the brain. Functionally it operates almost identically to a brain and can be made to do tasks similar to those performed by Schank's story program. Could a neural network equivalent be said to have any more ‘causal properties' than just a computer program ? Searle acknowledges that since we are merely machines, it is possible that machines can think.However he finds the idea of a computer program thinking implausible. However, if we could model a brain, with atomic accuracy in a computers memory, for example in the form of a neural network, surely it would work in exactly the same way and would therefore be just as valid a thinker as a human. It seems that this whole debate rests its most basic principles on a belief; either one believes that our ‘intentionality' derives purely from our brain and its structure or one doesn't.Even if we ever do manage to construct an exact replica of a brain that appears to work identically to the real thing, how could we tell if it really is a conscious entity with true intentionality, or merely acting like the chinese room demon ? Indeed, how can we define conscious, and intentionality in that context. There must be a level of functioning or reasoning that we can use as a cut-off point for deciding whether or not something is alive and thinking. Descartes stated â€Å"I think. Therefore, I am†. But was he thinking, or merely following a mechanical pattern, with no real understanding of the words ? References